The Bhagavad Gītā (Chapter 2, Verse 16) declares:

“nāsato vidyate bhāvo nābhāvo vidyate sataḥ”
“The unreal has no existence; the real never ceases to be.”

This foundational insight distinguishes the ever-absent from the ever-abiding. The only reality that truly is—unchanging and independent—is existence itself, sat, or Brahman. All else—seen and unseen—arises within that one Reality and depends entirely on It.

But what then is the nature of what we perceive—the tangible world, emotions, thoughts, relationships? Is it all false?

The Reflection-Being: A Glimpse of Mithyā

To unpack this, consider your face reflected in a mirror. The reflection moves when you move, smiles when you smile. It appears expressive, consistent, and undeniably present. And yet, on deeper inspection, we realize that this “reflection-being” lacks independent existence. He depends wholly on the real face standing before the mirror.

He is not asat—completely nonexistent—for we perceive him. But he is not sat either—he cannot exist without the original. He is mithyā: an appearance with functional reality in one domain, but no ultimate substance in another.

When we inquire into the reflection-being, he disappears. What remains is sat alone. Similarly, the world, which once felt solid and autonomous, dissolves in the light of self-knowledge—revealing Brahman as the only unchanging substratum.

Climbing the Ladder of Reality

Vedānta teaches that reality comes in two levels:

• Vyāvahārika Sattā – the transactional level of daily experience, where time, cause, and individuality seem real.
• Pāramārthika Sattā – the ultimate level, where only Brahman is, and all else is sublated.

To visualize this transition, imagine a ladder.

The lower rung is vyāvahārika. It is stable enough to help us rise. Here, the world appears real, actions have results, and spiritual practice begins. The mirror-man lives here, and so does the seeker.

But as we ascend through enquiry, guided by śravaṇa, manana, and nididhyāsana, we reach the higher rung: pāramārthika. Now we no longer take the rungs for reality. We see that even the mirror and the face, the seeker and the sought, collapse into sat. The illusion of separation dissolves.

Yet, the lower rung is not false. Just as a dream has meaning until waking, or a map is helpful until the destination is reached, the empirical world has a functional reality. It is useful—but not ultimate.

Mithyā: A Gentle Disappearance

Mithyā is not a denial of the world—it is a revaluation. The world is not discarded as false but is seen as dependent: like the mirror reflection, like the movie on a screen, like the dream that evaporates but leaves learning behind.

It is not enough to intellectually accept this. The true shift comes in direct knowledge (aparokṣa jñāna), when the last rung is left behind—and the climber, the climb, and even the concept of ladders dissolve into the One.

Anirvacanīya: The Inexpressible Nature of the Illusory

In Advaita Vedānta, the term anirvacanīya means indefinable or inexpressible. This is the precise status of mithyā. The world, as we experience it, cannot be pinned down as either real (sat) or unreal (asat). It appears, functions, and dissolves—leaving us with something that defies binary categorization.

This indefinability arises because:

• If the world were real, it would never be sublated. But it does, through knowledge.
• If it were unreal, like a square circle – it would never appear. But it does appear.

Therefore, it must be something else entirely—something that appears, yet does not abide. This “something else” is anirvacanīya—a reality that is knowable only in its disappearance, like mist fading under sunlight, leaving no trace.

The term safeguards the elegance of non-duality: Brahman alone is real. The world appears through avidyā (ignorance) and is sublated through vidyā (knowledge), revealing that the entire cosmos is neither independent nor permanent—but also not nothing. It is anirvacanīya mithyā.

What does it mean to be ignorant of something? Is it not knowing—or worse, knowing it wrongly?

In Advaita Vedanta, avidyā is not mere absence of knowledge. It is misrepresented knowledge, a distortion of truth. And perhaps its most dangerous form is the mistaken perception of duality: the split between subject and object, self and other, “I” and “world.” This is the fundamental illusion that materialism clings to—and what Vedanta compassionately dissects.

1. Misidentification and the Dualistic Trap

In everyday life (vyāvahārika), we identify with the body-mind complex—the limited “I.” This “I” experiences the world as a subject surrounded by distinct, objective things. It sees itself as the mirror reflecting reality.

But this “mirror-I” only offers a fractured picture. Like a handheld mirror that reflects only what falls within its narrow arc, the empirical self is limited and veiled. Its reflections are partial, and its knowledge—fragmented.

Thus, ignorance operates on two levels:

• Misidentification: Mistaking the reflection—the body-mind complex—as the Self.
• Lack of Knowledge: Inability to perceive the whole, owing to the mind’s inherent limitations.

Together, they form the fog of avidyā—a veil that seems to obscure the ever-luminous Self.

2. Can the Subject Be an Object?

A classic objection arises: how can Brahman—the ultimate reality—be both the locus of ignorance (where ignorance resides) and the content of ignorance (what one is ignorant of)? Traditionally, subject and object must be distinct. Just as your mind might be ignorant of a star, the star is not “in” the mind.

Advaita’s reply turns to experience: we commonly say, “I know myself” or “I don’t know myself.” Here, the same “I” appears as both subject and object. In vyavahāra, such a loop is not only possible—it’s common.

3. The Cave and the Lamp: What Truly Can Be Veiled?

To understand why Brahman can be the content of ignorance, consider this metaphor:

Imagine entering a dark cave. A dull rock rests in a corner. It’s hidden by shadow, yes—but that concealment is meaningless. The rock is inert, already in darkness. You don’t expect it to shine.

Now picture a lit lamp inside the same cave, but covered with a thick cloth. Its light is faint, diffused, veiled. And that concealment matters—because the lamp is meant to illuminate.

Only what is luminous can be meaningfully veiled. What is inert was never seen to begin with.

Here’s the subtle truth: even the veil that conceals the light borrows its existence from the very light it hides. The cloth around the lamp is visible because the lamp still glows beneath it. If the lamp were extinguished, even the veil would disappear into blackness. In this way, avidyā is inert, and yet it appears real only because of the presence of luminous Brahman. Without Awareness, who would speak of concealment, or recognition, or liberation?

This is why Brahman alone qualifies as the content of avidyā. Unlike inert objects, Brahman is self-revealing—it is the light of Consciousness itself. And just like the lamp in the cave, it can appear covered, even as it continues to shine.

From the standpoint of the Absolute (pāramārthika), the veil never truly existed. It’s not that Brahman was veiled. It only appeared so from the empirical (vyāvahārika) perspective, where the jīva momentarily identifies with the reflection rather than the light.

Just as a dream veil dissolves upon waking, the moment of realisation reveals that there was never anything to uncover—only the illusion that something had been lost.

4. Reconciling the Paradox

So how can the Self be both subject and object? The answer lies in the recognition that Brahman appears as the object of ignorance only within transactional reality (vyāvahārika). But from the absolute perspective (pāramārthika), Brahman is ever the subject, untouched, unobjectifiable, unbroken.

It’s a matter of mistaken standpoint. The fog is on the mirror—but the mirror was never tarnished.

5. The Unveiling: From Fragment to Fullness

The process of spiritual practice leads us to clear vision—most especially through Nididhyāsana, the deep, contemplative assimilation of truth. Here, the mind no longer tries to “grasp” Brahman as an object. Instead, through Akhaṇḍākāra Vṛtti, it mirrors the wholeness of reality by abiding as it.

The fog lifts. The veil dissolves. And what was always shining reveals itself, not as something found—but as something recognised.

Brahman is not attained, it is uncovered.

Advaita Vedanta offers a nuanced perspective on avidya (ignorance) and maya (illusion), particularly in relation to Ishwara (the cosmic creator or macrocosm) and Jiva (the individual being). A central critique questions whether Ishwara experiences ignorance. If valid cognition (pramana) removes ignorance, then:

• If Ishwara possesses valid cognition, He cannot experience ignorance.
• If He does not possess valid cognition, His omniscience is called into question.

This dilemma challenges not only the nature of Ishwara, but also the authority of Shruti (scripture)—which is accepted as a pramana precisely because it dispels ignorance and guides seekers toward liberation.

The Layered Veil of Ignorance

Avidya manifests as a single veil with two layers, obstructing clear perception of Brahman:

1. The first layer (concealment, avarana-shakti)—This prevents direct recognition of Brahman, creating doubt or denial of its existence.
2. The second layer (projection, vikshepa-shakti)—This distorts reality, making the world appear fragmented and dual.

Just as a misty veil both obscures vision and creates false appearances, avidya’s layered effect causes the Jiva to misperceive non-dual reality as multiplicity.

Liberation is achieved when the veil is fully removed:

• The first layer dissolves when the seeker intellectually understands that Brahman alone exists (through shravana and manana).
• The second layer falls away when the seeker abides in non-dual awareness (through niddhidyasana).

Ishwara and Avidya: Knowing vs Experiencing

Advaita Vedanta resolves the paradox of Ishwara’s relationship with ignorance through two key distinctions:

• Ishwara wields maya but is never bound by avidya. Ishwara knows ignorance exists but does not suffer from it.
• Jiva, on the other hand, is fully immersed in avidya, experiencing its layered distortions.

Since Ishwara is associated with maya but not affected by its powers, He wields the cosmic creative force (nirmana-shakti) to manifest the world, while Jiva is trapped in avidya due to moha-shakti (deluding power).

Thus, Ishwara is aware of ignorance and functions through it, while Jiva is trapped within ignorance and falsely identifies with multiplicity.

Avidya as the Root of Illusion

Avidya is the manifestation of misrepresented knowledge in the Jiva. This avidya causes one to mistake the One as the many, leading to identification with the body and misplaced ahamkara (egoism). This lack of correct knowledge bewilders the mind, resulting in large-scale confusion that, in reality, is only an illusion—maya.

Here, the causal relationship is essential:

• Maya is the effect; Avidya is the cause.
• Avidya conceals the truth and projects illusion, much like the dream state.
  • Forgetting oneself in REM sleep is akin to avidya—the loss of self-awareness.
  • Experiencing and believing the dream world as real is akin to maya—illusion arising from misperception.

Valid Cognition and the Removal of Ignorance

Since valid cognition (pramana) eliminates ignorance, Advaita Vedanta makes a crucial distinction: ignorance is removed only when obstacles do not interfere with direct realisation.

The layered veil of avidya consists of concealment (avarana-shakti), which hides Brahman, and projection (vikshepa-shakti), which distorts reality. Shruti (scripture) serves as the guiding pramana, working systematically to dispel both layers:

Removal of Layer of Concealment

• This is done through paroksha jnana (indirect cognition)—intellectual study, reflection, and reasoning.
• Shruti provides valid knowledge, allowing seekers to recognise Brahman conceptually and intellectually.

Removal of Layer of Projection

• This is done through aparoksha jnana (direct cognition)—immediate and experiential realization.
• Here, mere intellectual understanding is insufficient—one must abide in the non-dual awareness revealed by Shruti.

Thus, valid cognition (pramana) functions in two stages:

• First, the concealment layer falls away, revealing the truth that Brahman alone exists.
• Then, the projection layer dissolves, removing the false perception of duality.

If valid cognition were unable to remove ignorance, then:

• Shruti would lose its authority as a pramana.
• Liberation (moksha) would be impossible, since avidya would remain unresolved.

However, Advaita maintains that Shruti does dispel ignorance, guiding the Jiva beyond Ishwara and beyond Maya, toward Brahman—the ultimate truth.

Analogy: The Sun, the Mirror, and the Fog

To illustrate how Maya’s two layers affect Ishwara vs Jiva, consider this analogy:

Imagine the Sun shining brilliantly in the sky. This Sun represents Brahman—the absolute reality.

Now, there’s a perfect mirror reflecting the Sun clearly. This mirror represents Ishwara, the cosmic creator. Ishwara does not create the Sun; He simply reflects its light perfectly without distortion.

Meanwhile, Jiva is like a small, foggy mirror, covered by a single veil with two layers:

1. The fog (Avarana-shakti)—This hides the Sun, preventing direct awareness of Brahman.
2. Distorted reflections (Vikshepa-shakti)—This projects false images, making the Jiva experience multiplicity instead of unity.

• Ishwara wields maya, creating the world, yet remains untouched by ignorance.
• Jiva is caught within the fog of avidya, unable to recognize the Sun clearly.

Thus, removal of avidya requires two steps:

1. Clearing the fog (removing concealment) to recognize Brahman’s existence.
2. Correcting the distortions (removing projection) to abide effortlessly in the non-dual reality.

Conclusion

The journey toward liberation is about transcending the veil of avidya, peeling away its layers of concealment and projection. While Ishwara exists within transactional reality, Shruti directs the seeker beyond Ishwara, beyond maya, and beyond conceptual frameworks—toward Brahman, the ultimate truth.

Whenever we seek to understand something, we must think about it, analyse it, observe it. This process leads to the formation of a body of knowledge—the phala (fruit) that arises from observation. The mind categorises, compares, and synthesises information, resulting in a structured understanding of the observed reality. However, what happens when we turn towards the observer—the subject itself? Since the subject cannot be observed, it does not mean it cannot be realised.

Brahman is always the subject, never an object. Objects can be observed, analysed, and known through external perception, but the observer itself—the witnessing consciousness—cannot be objectified, for it is the very essence of existence. Everything that is asat—that which lacks absolute reality—can be observed because all mithya (illusion) appears distinct and separate. This is possible only through the senses, which operate within the vyavaharika (transactional) realm. However, the essence of who we truly are—the ever-present witness—remains unchanged, and thus cannot suddenly become an object of perception.

This does not mean that our true nature cannot be realized. Brahman cannot be objectified, yet realisation occurs when the mind attains a special mode—Akhandākāra Vṛtti. This vṛtti allows the mind to perceive itself as whole, unbroken, and singular, dissolving the false identification with fragmented individuality.

This shift is made possible through Niddidhyāsana, a deeply immersive meditative absorption that transforms intellectual understanding into direct experiential realisation. It is not merely contemplation—it is the relentless assimilation of truth until all false identifications dissolve completely. The scriptures emphasise that Niddidhyāsana follows Śravaṇa (listening to Vedantic teachings) and Manana (reflecting on them to remove doubts). While Śravaṇa establishes knowledge and Manana removes intellectual uncertainty, Niddidhyāsana is the final step where truth is lived, breathed, and embodied.

Through dedicated Niddidhyāsana, false tendencies (vāsanās) shaped by karma phalas weaken, and the mind transitions from fragmented perception to unshaken abidance in Brahman. With Īśvara Anugraha (divine grace), this abidance deepens, leading to Brahman-knowledge.

Picture looking into a foggy mirror—the mirror represents Brahman, the fog is avidya (ignorance), and the reflection is the realisation of Brahman. The process of Akhandākāra Vṛtti and Niddidhyāsana is akin to clearing the fog—allowing the reflection to emerge as it always was.

Importantly, you do not create the reflection when you wipe the mirror; it was always there. Likewise, Brahman is not something gained or acquired—It is simply recognised as the sole reality.

Through relentless Niddidhyāsana—constant contemplation, unwavering meditation, and steadfast discernment—the right inner conditioning takes place. As the fog dissipates, truth is revealed—a realization from which there is no regression. Just as a child born into the world cannot return to the womb, once the veil of ignorance is lifted, one never again falls into the illusion of separation.

Resolving the Locus Problem of Avidya in Advaita Vedanta

Introduction

Advaita Vedanta asserts that Brahman alone is the ultimate reality, while jiva (individual self) and the world are mere appearances superimposed by avidya (ignorance). A critical question in Advaita philosophy is Āśraya-anupapatti—the challenge of identifying where avidya resides. If ignorance is the root cause of illusion, it must have a locus (āśraya) in which it exists. But does avidya reside in jiva or Brahman, and how does it function?

Through logical reasoning, scriptural references (including Bhagavad Gita verses), and analogies, this article explores Āśraya-anupapatti, resolving key philosophical concerns related to avidya’s relationship with karma, deep sleep, perception, and realization.

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1. The Fundamental Problem: Where Does Avidya Reside?

Different interpretations within Advaita Vedanta propose two primary views:

• Avidya resides in jiva.
• Avidya resides in Brahman (apparently, not actually).

Each position raises challenges:

• If avidya is in jiva, then jiva must exist before ignorance, contradicting Advaita’s assertion that jiva itself is a product of ignorance.
• If avidya is in Brahman, then ignorance appears to modify the nature of Brahman, contradicting its changeless, pure consciousness.

Advaita’s Resolution: Avidya as Apparent, Not Real

The key insight from Vivarana Vedanta is that avidya is not a substance requiring a physical locus. Instead, it is a mistaken perception imposed upon Brahman, much like:

• The Rope-Snake Illusion (Bhagavad Gita 2.16) – “Nāsato vidyate bhāvo, nābhāvo vidyate sataḥ” (The unreal has no existence, and the real never ceases to be.)
• Just as a rope appears as a snake in dim light, avidya appears real but has no actual substance.
• The Mirage in the Desert – Water seems present in a mirage due to light refraction, but there is no water. Likewise, avidya is merely a false appearance within Brahman, not an actual attribute.

Thus, avidya does not reside in Brahman as a real entity—it merely appears due to misperception.

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2. Is Brahman Opposed to Avidya? Resolving the Apparent Contradiction

An important question arises: If Brahman is pure consciousness, how can avidya appear within it?

Key Insights:

Brahman is untouched by avidya (Bhagavad Gita 7:13-14)

• Krishna explains that maya (avidya) deludes the world, failing to recognize Brahman, which is beyond it.
• Just as a mirage does not modify the desert, avidya does not actually affect Brahman.

Avidya does not exist apart from misperception (Bhagavad Gita 15.15)

• Krishna states: “I am seated in everyone’s heart, and from Me come remembrance, knowledge, and forgetfulness.”
• Avidya is not a real substance, much like a reflection in water—it appears distorted but does not affect the water itself.
• Remembrance is not the acquisition of new knowledge, but the dissolution of ignorance. Just as sunlight dispels a mirage without altering the desert itself, the lifting of avidya reveals one’s true nature—ever-present yet momentarily obscured. The Lord, seated in the heart, facilitates both remembrance and forgetfulness, guiding beings according to their karmic tendencies.

Avidya is beginningless but not endless

• Since causality itself belongs to illusion, avidya has no first cause (anādi).
• However, it ceases upon realization, much like darkness vanishing when a lamp is lit.

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3. Deep Sleep: Does Avidya Persist Without Jiva?

In suṣupti (deep sleep), the ego dissolves, along with the mind and sensory functions. However, avidya remains, which is why upon waking, jiva still experiences samsara.

Key Insights from Deep Sleep:

• Jiva-hood is lost, but ignorance remains
• Like a computer in sleep mode—the screen turns off, but the system remains active in the background.
• Mind and reflection of consciousness are resolved
• Since the mind is inactive, Brahman is not misperceived, yet ignorance persists in an unmanifest form.
• Avidya does not require active perception
• Like clouds covering the sun—the light (Brahman) is temporarily obscured, but the sun itself remains untouched.

Thus, avidya does not depend on jiva but rather manifests when perception activates.

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4. Karma, Physical Body, and Avidya’s Role

The relationship between karma, the body, and avidya creates the cycle of rebirth.

How Avidya Generates Karma:

• Avidya leads to self-misidentification with the body.
• This misperception creates doership (kartrtva), leading to karma.
• Karma, accumulated over lifetimes, reinforces the illusion of separateness.

How Karma Affects Avidya:

• The physical body reinforces ignorance, maintaining the illusion of individuality.
• Sensory experiences deepen avidya, much like watching a movie so intensely that it feels real.
• However, self-inquiry can dissolve avidya, breaking the cycle.

Once jnana dawns, karma loses its binding force, as doership dissolves.

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5. Why Doesn’t One Jiva’s Realization Remove Avidya for Others?

• Jnana occurs in the intellect (buddhi), which is part of sukshma sharira (subtle body)
• Since each body is unique to its jiva, realization occurs individually.
• Just as one dreamer awakening does not wake up others, self-realization does not dissolve ignorance for all jivas simultaneously.

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6. Concluding Resolution: Avidya Exists Only Within Jiva’s Experience

While avidya may apparently exist, it is only within jiva that it becomes experientially real.

Core Insights:

• Brahman remains untouched by avidya—ignorance exists only in misperception.
• Avidya manifests in jiva, reinforcing the illusion of individuality.
• Jnana dissolves avidya, revealing that jiva was never truly separate from Brahman.

Thus, the notion that Brahman cannot be the āśraya of avidya is based on a misunderstanding—since ignorance is not real but merely apparent, Brahman remains its illusory substrate without being affected.

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Final Thought: Advaita’s Ultimate Truth

Through careful reasoning, we see that avidya does not require a separate locus, as it is merely an apparent distortion. When realized, jnana dissolves avidya, revealing the timeless truth:

Brahman alone exists—pure, changeless, and free from illusion.

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